What are Neanderthals and how did they live?

## Introduction to Neanderthals 🧬 Neanderthals (*Homo neanderthalensis*) were one of the closest extinct relatives of modern humans, living across Europe and parts of Asia from approximately 400,000 to 40,000 years ago. They were first discovered in 1856 in the Neander Valley in Germany, which gave them their name. Their existence and way of life continue to fascinate scientists and reshape our understanding of human evolution. ## Physical Characteristics Neanderthals were robust and muscular, adapted to cold climates with distinctive features including: - **Large Brow Ridges**: Prominent ridges above the eyes - **Wide Noses**: Adapted for humidifying and warming cold air - **Short, Stocky Bodies**: Standing approximately 5'5" (1.65m) tall - **Barrel-shaped Chests**: Enhanced oxygen consumption - **Larger Brain Capacity**: Than modern *Homo sapiens* ## Daily Life and Culture 🏹 Archaeological evidence reveals Neanderthals were sophisticated beings with complex social structures. They lived in small, close-knit groups of extended family members and exhibited various behaviors: 1. Created tools using the [Mousterian technology](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mousterian-industry) 2. Controlled fire and cooked food 3. Built shelters and sought refuge in caves 4. Cared for their sick and elderly 5. Buried their dead with ritual practices ### Diet and Hunting 🍖 > "Used sophisticated hunting strategies that required planning, cooperation and technical knowledge to bring down large prey." - *Journal of Archaeological Science* Their diet included: - Large game (mammoth, bison, deer) - Small animals - Marine resources in coastal areas - Plant foods (seeds, nuts, fruits) ### Tools and Technology Neanderthals were skilled toolmakers, using: ``` - Stone tools (flint knives and scrapers) - Bone tools (awls and needles) - Wooden tools (spears and bows) - Mousterian tool culture - Levallois technique for stone working ``` ## Intelligence and Creativity 🎨 Recent discoveries have shown that Neanderthals: * Created cave art in [Spain](https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-02357-8) * Made jewelry from eagle talons * Used medicinal plants * Possibly had language capabilities * Exhibited symbolic behavior through pigment use ## Interaction with Modern Humans Neanderthals coexisted with early modern humans (*Homo sapiens*) for thousands of years. Genetic studies have revealed: - Interbreeding occurred between the two species - Non-African modern humans carry 1-4% Neanderthal DNA - Their genetic legacy influences modern human traits including: - Immune system responses - Skin characteristics - Hair features - Disease risk factors ## Extinction and Legacy Neanderthals disappeared around 40,000 years ago, with several possible contributing factors: * Climate change affecting food sources * Competition with modern humans * Disease * Environmental changes For further research, visit the [Natural History Museum](https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/who-were-the-neanderthals.html) or the [Smithsonian's Human Origins Program](https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-neanderthalensis). --- Their story remains crucial to understanding human evolution and our own species' journey through time, with ongoing research continuing to reveal new insights about these fascinating ancient relatives.

What are Neanderthals and how did they live?

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